Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts Report
Introduction
Throughout the course of this report I will be presenting
the findings of my research on Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts. I will be expanding on the information that I
have presented in my blog, Sam’s Illuminated Manuscripts. During my research I focused on the questions
I listed in my first blog post, titled: “Research Brief”, all of these have
been addressed and will be answered in the following report. Throughout this report I have inserted a series (broken into three parts), from the BBC about illuminated manuscripts, it was created for a exhibition held at Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, but it goes through the history of illuminated manuscripts, as I have below.
Summary
Medieval
Illuminated Manuscripts were an art that was highly popular in the
Middle Ages. Initially the domain of religious groups, the art became popular with lay people, and artisans began appearing. The manuscripts took on many forms, beginning with Bible and other
Liturgical books, moving eventually into books for specialist and literature. Many well-known
codex still survive today, either in parts or whole. The process is quite long and difficult, and generally completed by more than one person. Throughout the centuries, many events have effected the survival of many books, from wars, to fires and theft. But none as much as a certain invention.
What, when, where & why?
Book illumination is the art of embellishing books with painted
pictures, ornamental letters and other intricate designs and decorations. For a
codex or picture to be truly illuminated,
it must include gold or silver foil and bright colours. The art of decorating documents can be traced
back to the Egyptians in the 20th century BC, but, illuminated manuscripts originated in the early
Middle Ages, around the 6th century,
in the Western Roman Empire. They were
at their peak from 11th century to the mid-15th century.
Illuminated manuscripts also were produced in other parts of
Europe and in parts of the Arabic world.
Generally illuminated manuscripts were of a religious nature, for use
during ceremonies etc, and contained decorations and miniatures of religious
scenes. However, Eastern and Islamic
illuminated manuscripts did not. Islam forbids
idolatry, and therefore illuminated manuscripts generally contained only ornamental page
decorations, or non religious images.
I believe the true purpose of illuminated manuscripts was
the same for any book: simply, to preserve the written word. The high levels of decoration simply served
to enhance the esteem in which they were/are held. The monetary value of the books ensured that
they were protected and preserved for as long as can be. The purpose of each individual book
varied, for the most part manuscripts were used for religious purposes, i.e.
liturgical book, prayer books and Holy Scriptures (bibles), but there were a
portion of books produced that were for secular use, i.e. chronicles, books for
specialists etc.
Types of illuminated manuscripts
Bibles
These are complete versions of the Old and New Testaments.
Liturgical books
Elements taken from full version of the bible, and used by
the clergy during different types of services, including:
Psalters,
Evangeliary,
Evangelistary,
Sacramentary and Missals,
Temporal,
Breviary,
Gradual and antiphony,
Books of Hours,
Apocalypses.
Books for specialists
There were less important religious books, some of these
were: homiliares (collections of sermons); martyrologies’ (reports of martyrs);
collections of legends and others. There
were also many
secular books, some topics were: astronomical works; medical knowledge;
art of warfare; architecture; plants; zoological, there were even collections
put together as encyclopaedia.
Narrative literature, history and travel
Stories such as the Fall of Troy or King Arthur and his
knights, these are generally written as
allegories. We can also include some other types of
texts, such as: law documents; text books etc.
Society, production & patrons
The type of book determined the role its played in society. Early on manuscripts were for the exclusive use of religious communities, both for private devotions and for use during services. Around the 12th century orders for books were coming from individuals, for private use and collection. And the use of manuscripts changed, from use just for devotions to use for self-education. Still generally of religious nature in the beginning, changing to books for specialists or literature and history; books for scholarly use. The rise of universities in the 13th century, prompted this change.
In the early Middle Ages, manuscripts were produced in Monasteries, by Monks, in rooms set aside for this purpose, called scriptorium's. As illuminated manuscripts penetrated into secular parts of society, there was a rise in lay craftsman. Who opened their own workshops and worked as professional artists, producing illuminated manuscripts for profit. At times these craftsman were even called to monasteries, to complete works. The production of one illuminated manuscript was usually completed by more than one artist, these could be: the parchment maker; the scribe; the miniaturist/illuminator; and the book-binder. Occasionally one person would produce an entire codex. These lay craftsman formed guilds; i.e. The Guild of Painters, or various others belonging to the book trades. Some of these artists produced both miniatures for manuscripts, and larger scale paintings. Until, around the late Medieval period, illuminators and other artists generally remained anonymous. Then as the status of the artisans began to rise, we began to see signed works.
When illuminated manuscripts were produced in the beginning, only people of highest secular and ecclesiastical rank possessed them. By the late Middle Ages, illuminated manuscripts were appreciated for their aesthetics as well as their contents, and collections began appearing for this reason, they were added to treasuries along with other art items. It was these collectors who ensured the survival of many ancient illuminated manuscripts. They were kept safe, restored and repaired when necessary, and later bequeathed to libraries of monasteries, and eventually even universities.
Important, significant or well-known illuminated manuscripts of the Middle Ages
5th Century - Ambrosian Iliad - The Iliad is an epic poem written by Homer in the 7th or 8th century BC, about the Trojan War. This is the oldest surviving illuminated manuscripts, although most of it's pictures were cut out and pasted onto sheets of vellum, meaning that much of the text was lost.
6th Century - St Augustine's Gospels - A book of gospels sent to Cambridge for use by St Augustine. Although it is missing some pages and miniatures, it is still in use today, particularly for the swearing of the oath for the enthronement of the new Bishops of Canterbury. The Gospels is the oldest surviving Latin illustrated gospel book.
7th century - The Naples Dioscorides - a Greek herbal, it contains descriptions of plants and their medicinal uses, the text is arranged alphabetically. This codex was stolen from Naples in 1718, and finally returned after the conclusion of WW1, in 1919.
8th Century - Book of Kells - c.a. 800 or earlier. A gospel book in Latin. It is thought to be Ireland's best national treasure, an insular book that is more extravagant and complex than many others.
9th Century - Book of Nunnaminster - an Anglo-Saxon prayer book. It contains the passion narratives of the four gospels, and a collection of prayers.
10th Century - Gospels of Otto III - an evangeliary that is may be the most valuable book in the world, with gold binding set with jewels and ivory panel. It was made for the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III.
11th Century - Bambery Apocalypse - contains the Book of Revelation of St John and a Gospel Lectionary. Another one belonging to the Ottonian book design.
12th Century - Winchester Bible - an ornate bible, used for readings at mealtimes.
13th Century - al-Jazari: Kitab fi Ma'rifat al-Hijal al-Handasiysa - "The Book of Machines". The function and methods of construction of various mechanical devises, i.e. the water clock.
14th Century - The Golden Haggadah - texts that contain prayers and readings to accompany the Passover 'seder', mainly dealing with the Israelites exodus from Egypt.
15th Century - The Hours of Catherine of Cleaves - contains prayers for private use during daily devotions. It is one of the most lavishly illustrated manuscripts of the 15th century, created c.a. 1430, at the time of the marriage of Catherine and Arnold, the Duke of Guilders.
Process of illumination, production of manuscripts
When producing manuscripts there were fairly rigid steps to the process:
- The parchment is produced and prepared.
- The text was written first, with space or spaces left for decoration.
- Process of decoration/illumination:
- drawing of the design,
- transferring the design to the parchment, via pricking or tracing,
- application and polishing/burnishing of the gilt,
- application of the colours,
- black outlines and white highlights added.
- Binding:
- pages gathered, and stitched together,
- gatherings laced onto wood boards, (the covers of the book),
- the boards then covered with leather,
- a clasp was added to keep the pages flat,
- The manuscript could then be decorated, with: leather (tooled or stamped); velvets or silks; sculptured decoration made with precious metals or jewels.
Events that effected illuminated manuscripts
Many collections were decimated or completely destroyed in the course of wars, or fires. An example of accidental destruction by fire was during the Great Fire of London. In 1666, 80% of greater London was destroyed, including: 87 parish churches, St Paul's Cathedral and 44 company halls, all of which may have had significant collections. The losses from events such as this, could be devastating.
But of course, there is also the deliberate and malicious destruction of books too. This has happened many times over the centuries, either because the content was considered blasphemous, by one religion of another, or because one culture wished to silence, censor, control or even destroy another culture. Some examples of this are:
- during the Reformation, Roman Catholic manuscripts were destroyed,
- all libraries in Baghdad were destroyed during a Mongol invasion in 1258, luckily about 400,000 manuscripts were rescued and moved to Iran before the siege.
- probably one of the major acts of destruction we think of in modern times were book burnings by the Nazis during WWII, anything that was un-German was destroyed.
Theft is another way illuminated manuscripts have been lost or destroyed throughout history. They are very valuable and highly prized for both their actual and intrinsic value. Some examples of theft are:
- the Vikings took the manuscripts of the Irish monasteries in the 9th and 10th centuries, during invasions, the covers of many had been made with solid metals.
- even in modern times, when a American University professor, having been granted special access, used scissors and a razor to steal dozens of pages from illuminated manuscripts, stored at the Vatican Apostolic Library in Rome.
A feature of many illuminated manuscripts produced in Medieval Times, were curses threatening damnation for thieves who dared to steal them. A great threat, obviously.
The end for illuminated manuscripts
With the west's movement into the Orient came new cheaper materials, paper and inks. The plague also had an impact on production, it killed many of the artisans skilled in this art, especially in monasteries, where Monks lived in very cramped, close communities.
But, simply, it was the invention of the Gutenberg Printing Press, in c.a. 1452. Books could be mass produced and information was able to be spread quickly, and accurately. Creating a great need for knowledge and information, the form it took didn't need to be beautiful, just cheap and accessible. The invention of the printing press also affected many other parts of society, i.e.: the break-up of Europe's unity during the Reformation; the up-rising of the peasant classes, with access to accurate information that could be spread quickly and widely, leading to a more literate society. Science was the greatest recipient of this technology, advancements were able to occur much more rapidly, with the rapid spread of accurate information and knowledge. But, all those are for another time, what concerns us is that the printing press took books and the production of books, out of the hands of the highest classes control and placed it into the hands of the lower classes. And, unfortunately, bringing about the beginning of the end of a beautiful craft. Production still continued past this time, but it was much slower and considerable less codex were produced.
Conclusion
What I discovered during my reading, was that Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts were for the top classes of society, mostly for religious purposes. That is, until other parts of high society began collecting and ordering manuscripts of their own. Production was initially the domain of religious groups, until it began to be profitable, and then lay craftsman became involved. Production was a delicate, expensive and time-consuming process, which was reflected in the cost of manuscripts. Like all valuable artefact's, manuscripts were the target of many who wished to either possess them, or destroy them. After all my research I now think of the Middle Ages, as the Golden Age of the Book. In no other time in history were they so beautiful, and probably so highly prized, because of their value. Production grew and grew, they became more intricate and more decorated, until something cheaper and easier to produce came along, how many times have we heard that story? But without the invention of the Gutenberg Printing Press, society wouldn't be what it is today, and even though I might hanker after such beautiful art to read, I enjoy what we have now.
Link to my complete Bibliographical page.
